Although the school of philosophy started by Socrates and championed by Plato and Aristotle continues to be the most famous, other schools of thought began to branch, including the Epicureans and Cynics. In the 3rd century B.C., Stoicism arose in response to and under the influence of these older schools, combining many of the best theories from each into a more cohesive whole. With a greater flexibility and more practical application to everyday life, Stoicism quickly became a very popular school of thought, a growth made exponential by its introduction to the Romans.

The Stoics weren’t the only ones who challenged Epicureans, because few philosophical schools in the ancient world were as controversial. To their enemies, the Epicureans were essentially hedonistic heretics, making them enemies of traditional morality whose teachings threatened the social and religious foundations of Greek civilization. To their admirers, however, the Epicureans represented one of antiquity’s most rational philosophical movements, offering ordinary people a path toward happiness, peace of mind, and freedom from fear.

Though often remembered today merely for the modern word “epicurean,” which has become associated with luxurious food and refined tastes, the actual philosophy of Epicureanism was far more complex and intellectually ambitious than simple indulgence. At its heart, Epicureanism sought to answer life’s most pressing issues, namely how to achieve happiness and pleasure while avoiding physical pain and mental anguish in a world of uncertainty. To offer answers, Epicurus founded his philosophical school in Athens around 306 B.C. during one of the most turbulent periods in Greek history. The Classical Era was gone, replaced by the vast kingdoms created after the conquests of the Macedonians, and traditional political life had become unstable, warfare remained constant, and many Greeks experienced growing uncertainty about religion, identity, and the future.